Commensalism Definition, Examples, and Relationships

Commensalism is a type of relationship between two living organisms in which one organism benefits from the other without harming it. A commensal species benefits from another species by obtaining locomotion, shelter, food, or support from the host species, which (for the most part) neither benefits nor is harmed. Commensalism ranges from brief interactions between species to life-long symbiosis. Commensalism Definition The term was coined in 1876 by Belgian paleontologist and zoologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden, along with the term mutualism. Beneden initially applied the word to describe the activity of carcass-eating animals that followed predators to eat their waste food. The word commensalism comes from the Latin word commensalis, which means sharing a table. Commensalism is most often discussed in the fields of ecology and biology, although the term extends to other sciences. Terms Related to Commensalism Commensalism is often confused with related words: Mutualism - Mutualism is a  relationship in which two organisms benefit from each other. Amensalism - A relationship in which one organism is harmed while the other is not affected. Parasitism - A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed. Theres often debate about whether a particular relationship is an example of commensalism or another type of interaction. For example, some scientists consider the relationship between people and gut bacteria to be an example of commensalism, while others believe it is mutualistic because humans may gain a benefit from the relationship. Examples of Commensalism Remora fish have a disk on their heads that makes them able to attach to larger animals, such as sharks, mantas, and whales. When the larger animal feeds, the remora detaches itself to eat the extra food.Nurse plants are larger plants that offer protection to seedlings from the weather and herbivores, giving them an opportunity to grow.Tree frogs use plants as protection.Golden jackals, once they have been expelled from a pack, will trail a tiger to feed on the remains of its kills.Goby fish live on other sea animals, changing color to blend in with the host, thus gaining protection from predators.Cattle egrets eat the insects stirred up by cattle when they are grazing. The cattle are unaffected, while the birds gain food.The burdock plant produces spiny seeds that cling to the fur of animals or clothing of humans. The plants rely on this method of seed dispersal for reproduction, while the animals are unaffected. Types of Commensalism (With Examples) Inquilinism - In inquilinism, one organism uses another for permanent housing. An example is a bird that lives in a tree hole. Sometimes epiphytic plants growing on trees are considered iniquilism, while others might consider this to be a parasitic relationship because the epiphyte might weaken the tree or take nutrients that would otherwise go to the host. Metabiosis - Metabiosis is a commensalistic relationship in which one organism forms a habitat for another. An example is a hermit crab, which uses a shell from a dead gastropod for protection. Another example would be maggots living on a dead organism. Phoresy - In phoresy, one animal attaches to another for transport. This type of commensalism is most often seen in arthropods, such as mites living on insects. Other examples include anemone attachment to hermit crab shells, pseudoscorpions living on mammals, and millipedes traveling on birds. Phoresy may be either obligate or facultative. Microbiota - Microbiota are commensal organisms that form communities within a host organism. An example is the bacterial flora found on human skin. Scientists disagree on whether microbiota is truly a type of commensalism. In the case of skin flora, for example, there is evidence the bacteria confer some protection on the host (which would be mutualism). Domesticated Animals and Commensalism Domestic dogs, cats, and other animals appear to have started out with commensal relationships with humans. In the case of the dog, DNA evidence indicates dogs associated themselves with people before humans switched from hunting-gathering to agriculture. Its believed the ancestors of dogs followed hunters to eat remains of carcasses. Over time, the relationship became mutualistic, where humans also benefited from the relationship, gaining defense from other predators and assistance tracking and killing prey. As the relationship changed, so did the characteristics of dogs. Reference:  Larson G (2012). Rethinking dog domestication by integrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109: 8878–83.

Education in Thomas Mores Utopia Essay - 2638 Words

The goal of education is to learn, and in this process of learning and being educated there are some greater goals that are served. Education in Thomas More’s Utopia seems to cater to a larger goal, which is to create virtuous persons and citizens, as they are responsible for attaining a flourishing human community. In Shakespeare’s The Tempest there seems to be an underlying idea of a connection between education and a sense of social control. The idea of instilling among his subjects a sense of obedience and influencing their knowledge through education, in order to bring about a feeling of belonging to a nation is prevalent in The Tempest. On one hand, education serves the purpose of creating citizens of a flourishing society and on the†¦show more content†¦Prospero learns the use of books on the island. Through his books he gains the magical knowledge that he needs to teach Caliban and Ariel, and also the knowledge of how to control the island and the visit ors on his island. His magical feats not only intimidate his enemies but also let him have his way. Prospero further spreads this authority by marrying his daughter to Ferdinand. When Ferdinand draws his sword to try and resist Prospero, Prospero responds, My foot my tutor? (I, ii, 470) This, in a way, sets the hierarchy between the two men. Prospero recognizes himself as a ruler and a teacher. Prosperos magic can control Ferdinand (it makes him to drop his sword the first time they meet) and thereby gaining Ferdinand’s respect. Prospero puts Ferdinand through different tasks to make him value Miranda more. Prospero says, too light winning / make the prize light. (I, ii, 452-3) Ferdinand takes Calibans job of carrying wood, thus accepting the role of an apprentice (an important educational practice) to Prospero. Prospero is also very careful with Miranda’s education. He is her teacher, Here / Have I, thy schoolmaster, made thee more profit / Than other princes can that have more time / For vainer hours, and tutors not so careful (I, ii, 171-4). Prospero’s magic is a perversion of his teacher-ly powers, as it lets him to put to sleep and wake Miranda whenever he wants to. Throughout the play, there are severalShow MoreRelatedKirstie Williams. Benson. English 271 Distance Education.1481 Words   |  6 PagesWilliams Benson English 271 Distance Education 5 March 2017 Outline THESIS: In this essay, we will analyze Utopia’s role in the common laws, the religious freedoms, and dystopia/utopia similarities throughout More’s literature. I. Introduction A. Imagine you are a sailor, sailing the vast emptiness of the ocean. B. To your dismay, the storm thrashes waves against your boat. C. You find yourself on the island of Thomas More’s Utopia D. Some facts about Thomas More II. Common Law / Commonplace / CustomsRead MoreThomas Mores Utopia and its impact on English society during the Renaissance.1433 Words   |  6 PagesRenaissance, a time in which art and literature flourished. Thomas More, the first English humanist of the Renaissance, was born in London during this period. Mores style is simple because of its colloquial language but a deeper look into his irony hints at deep dissatisfaction with the current thought and desire for change. Utopia (which in Greek means nowhere) is the name of Mores fictional island of perfected society. Thomas Mores Utopia was the first literary work in which the ideas of CommunismRead MoreSir Thomas More s Utopia And Niccolo Machiavelli s The Prince1454 Words   |  6 PagesSir Thomas More’s Utopia and Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince reflect the ideals of the Renaissance. Their reflections of the Renaissance are similar; however, their representations of the Renaissance also have distinct differences. The Renaissance or â€Å"rebirth† was a cultural movement that accompanied the passage of Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times. Niccolo Machiavelli was an Italian civic humanist, historian, diplomat, philosopher, politician, and writer during the Renaissance. He appliedRead MoreThe Rights of the Individual and Women Lost in Thomas More’s Utopia1575 Words   |  7 Pages A person’s image of utopia varies depending on their individual life experiences and the expectations of the society in which they live; utopia could be described as an ideal place where equality, comfort, safety, compassion, and freedom are important qualities. In Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, the elimination of property and money has all citizens working for the commonwealth and it is â€Å"where every man has a right to everything, they all know that if care is taken to keep the public stores fullRead MoreAnalysis Of Utopia By Thomas More1710 Words   |  7 Pages Utopia- good place, or in other words, no place. Thomas More, in his work Utopia, describes a nation in a parallel universe free from greed, pride, immorality, poverty, and crime; told as a narrative of a well-traveled explorer Hythloday to Moore himself, Hythloday speaks of a nation founded purely upon rationality, efficiency, and perfect morality. Thomas More’s work is no political or social theory, but rather a social critique and a commentary. In an age experiencing political and social struggleRead More A Deconstruction Reading of Thomas Mores Utopia Essay1785 Words   |  8 PagesA Deconstruction Reading of Thomas Mores Utopia Thomas Mores Utopia is the bastard child of European conventions and humanist ideals. Inspired by Mores belief in the elevation of human manners, education, and morals, the text also concedes to the omnipresent traditions of European society. While More accepts parentage of the text, he distances himself from its radical notions and thinly veiled condemnation of Europes establishment. Through the use of a benign narrator, Raphael HythlodayRead MoreUtopia By Thomas More, The Greatest Humanist Writers Of The Renaissance England1201 Words   |  5 Pageswell as the rebirth of some forgotten thinking, came about. Thomas More, the author of Utopia, was one of the greatest humanist writers of the Renaissance England. The book talks about his meeting up with two men and hearing the stories and comparisons of society with one of the two men. Thomas More being a European dismisses some of the ideas of this Utopia but claims to want some of those ways incorporated into the European society. U topia gives off a Renaissance theme of writing, criticizes how theRead MoreUtopi A Critique Of 17th And 16th Century English And European Society1416 Words   |  6 PagesPaper 3: Utopia Sir Thomas More’s Utopia offers a critique of 15th and 16th century English and European society. He offers this criticism through a fictitious recount of world traveler Raphael Hythloday’s journey to the land of Utopia. More brilliantly expresses his criticisms of society through the voice of Hythloday, primarily so none of his views, no matter how outlandish, couldn’t technically be tied back to him. This societal critique was one of the most famous works produced from the RenaissanceRead MoreThe Characteristics Of Thomas Mores Utopia913 Words   |  4 PagesIn 1516, Thomas More published the well-known book titled â€Å"Utopia,† where he defined the word as either â€Å"a good place† or â€Å"no place.† In the novel, More described an ideal communal society that was almost unheard of in his time. His â€Å"Utopia,† whose name was possibly derived from the Greek roots â€Å"ou not† and â€Å"tà ³p(os) a place† (â⠂¬Å"Utopia), can ultimately be considered a prototype of a modern welfare state (â€Å"Utopia (book)†). This, combined with a lack of private property and other characteristics,Read More Comparing Platos Republic, Mores Utopia, and Gurneys Dinotopia1395 Words   |  6 PagesPlatos Republic, Mores Utopia, and Gurneys Dinotopia    Throughout history, mankind has struggled to lead better lives and improve their society for future generations. What do we continuously attempt to improve? What kind of changes are we trying to institute? In other words, what is an ideal society? Many people have very diversified views about a perfect civilization. In Platos Republic, Sir Thomas Mores Utopia, and James Gurneys Dinotopia, three imaginary societies are described

The Impact of Mass Media Free Essays

President Abraham Lincoln delivered his infamous Gettysburg address dedicating the Soldiers National Cemetery at Gettysburg on November 19th, 1863. It was estimated 10,000 people attended the ceremony to observe the speech live and it was days before the message was read about in print. President Barrack Obama delivered his live State of the Union Address last January to an estimated 30 million television viewers at home while another 1. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Mass Media or any similar topic only for you Order Now 3 million watched it online and it was only minutes after the speech was done that people were able to read about it in print. Mass media is printed and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. In the 21st Century United States, mass media products range from traditional newspapers and magazines, to radio, television, and internet. The internet has brought a whole new era of instant information to the media utilizing online social networks and live news outlets. In 150 years this Nation has gone from actually being on site to view something live to the ability to watch events live from the comfort of our own home. Where will we be in another 150 years? Although instant media is most times unfiltered, mass media has grown because of advanced technological means offering instant global reach while greatly influencing social changes. The Functionalism of Mass Media The functionalist perspective emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain stability (Schaefer, 2009). So what is the purpose of the media? Mass media plays important roles in our everyday life. In addition to providing entertainment, news, and education, media products are also used to socialize and market. As a daily routine, many people today make use of mass media tools for various reasons such as socializing, gathering data, sharing information, and even escape. Television is a source of media that has a strong effect on society today. It is important to look at the influence of television because an average American who subscribe to cable TV watches over eight hours of television a day (Guillen, 2005). The medium of film is particularly suited to representing multiple perspectives through its ability to convey subjective experience. Film is also a medium with rich resources for conveying the sights, sounds, rhythms, and auras of a particular space and time, or what is called â€Å"chronoscopes†Ã¢â‚¬â€that is, â€Å"time-space articulations, characteristic of particular, historically determined conceptions of the relations between the human, the social and the natural world†. Further, the film medium is also well equipped to represent the multiscape complexity of globalization with its flows and disjuncture’s (Manning, et al. , 2010) The media increases social cohesion by presenting a common, more or less standardized, view of culture through mass communication (Schaefer, 2009). I believe we could all agree mass media provides valuable information which each individual uses for work or personal reasons. For example, many folks will watch the news on television or seek information via the internet daily to stay abreast of current events. As this paper is being written, a devastating earthquake and Tsunami recently struck Japan and now the country is trying to avert nuclear disaster. There is risk of nuclear power plants exploding and on the verge of meltdown. This in no way compares to the 9/11 attacks, but as fellow humans we are genuinely concerned for the well being of our neighbors to the Far East. Significant sporting events or sports entertainment such as the Olympics or the Superbowl are media tools used as a reason for people to gather and socialize with family and friends. The advertising moguls know this and also use these mass media events to market their products to millions of consumers. With the explosion of the internet and its global instant reach, new virtual societies have formed using websites such Skype, Twitter, and Facebook. These online tools are communities of people from all over the world meeting, make new friends, or catching up with old friends and family too in a web based portal. More and more people are beginning to live in a virtual reality world. While the privacy of these communities is often times criticized, the benefits of such media greatly increases social interaction. This theory also relays the message that the media is an enforcer of social norms (Schaefer, 2009). The mass media broadcasts information and television shows which reinforce social norms by pointing out the events that violate mores and folkways such as crimes and substance abuse. By doing this and not glorifying criminal behavior, the mass media can publicly emphasize the proper behaviors or formal norms to countless people. The Conflict with Mass Media Conflict theorists view the mass media as a means to reinforce divisions within a society which differs from the functionalist theory that mass media is used as a tool for social cohesion. Functionalist and conflict theorists would agree the mass media provides information, entertainment, and social outlets but where it differs is how much is provided and who decides what is transmitted (Schaefer, 2009). Gatekeeping is the process where material passes through a series of checkpoints before it reaches the audience. The media industry is funded by major businesses whose interests are the desire to maximize profits (Schaefer, 2009) and are shaped by these businesses’ agendas as well as the desires of the small group of individuals who control what eventually reaches the viewers. The community and the filmmakers have different expectations regarding content and control (Coffman, 2009) too. Quite often, the media is structured in such a way that certain minority interests or groups are simply neglected or used as stereotypes in television. The news inaccurately covers its communities by having most of its stories about violence. A University of Miami study of local television news found that the time devoted to crime varied between 23 to 50 percent even though violent crime in the city remained constant, involving less than one tenth of one percent of the population (Guillen, 2005). Often times one can watch the local evening news and hear more stories of violence in other parts of the Nation as well as other countries over good human interest stories in their local community. Technological advances of mass media products and communications offers many the opportunities for instant information, but not everyone gets to enjoy this though. There is a digital divide within the U. S. and especially global when compared to the U. S. How big is the â€Å"global digital divide†? Less than 10 percent of the world’s population uses the Internet. Statistics compiled by the International Telecommunication Union as of the end of 2002 indicate that Internet use as a proportion of the population ranges from less than one percent in many underdeveloped African, Central American, and South Asian countries to between 50 and 60 percent in Iceland, the United States, Scandinavia, Singapore or South Korea (Guillen, 2005). Because of these statistics, Americans are at risk of ethnocentrism if we don’t take this into account when associating with developing nations. Another area where Americas are at risk of being ethnocentric is when we overstress U. S. dominance (Schaefer, 2009) in the mass media. The Interactionism of Mass Media Interactionists generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Our social behavior is conditioned by the roles and statuses we accept, the groups to which we belong, and the institution we belong to (Schaefer, 2009). This theory is similar to the other theories in that the media is a major source of daily activity. It is very similar to the funtionalist perspective in that it supports face to face interactions within society. This theory differs with the conflict theory where the interactionist looks for shared understandings; conflict theorists emphasize the differences of opinion or the struggle and the divisions within a society. Advances in technology probably play the biggest role within the Interactionism theory. The rise of the internet has facilitated new forms of communication and social interaction (Schaefer, 2009). One the internet alone, there are sites like Facebook that have gone global that fully supports social interaction. Another site like YouTube is another area where anyone can post a video of just about anything. The danger of the above mentioned sites is there is little control to what is put onto these sites. Children who are exploring the net or have little to no parental supervision could end up seeing much more than what a social norm would expect. The internet is the exception to centralization and concentration on media. Interactionists see a change in the way people share media and how they get their news versus their interest in it. Why wait for the evening news or even for breaking news on CNN, when Yahoo and Google are at your fingertips? (Schaefer, 2009). The internet is readily available for the user and is also the only media outlet that allows the average person to get an audience of millions if a post, or most likely a video, goes viral. According to hyperdictionary. com, a viral video is a video clip that achieves widespread distribution through online sharing. Interactionists play close attention to the use of symbols (Schaefer, 2009). Political leaders and entertainment figures use the media to control their images as symbols through public appearances called photo opportunities or â€Å"photo ops. † The underlying approach to a photo op is to pose the candidate (or the actor) with symbols of appealing values, in the hope that viewers will equate the two. In beer commercials these values can include the friendship symbolized by a welcoming group of guys in a bar. For a political candidate, the values could include patriotism or people where there’s a candidate speaking with a U. S. flag as the backdrop or with his family or citizens of the community. Some movies engage their audience with alternative products to market the premiere or to promote continual interest in the movie. For example, the Shrek series construct global audiences as â€Å"communities† of consumers who are able to participate in a film by purchasing the many products placed throughout or by playing the computer games and visiting the Web sites developed as part of the â€Å"multimarket commercial intertext† of a given film (Manning, et al. , 2010). The Mass Media Providers Viewpoint. Media moguls and Webmasters perspective on the functionalist view of mass media is that it is a business, a big business. Large sums of money are generated by advertising on television, websites, magazines, etc. While maximizing profits (Schaefer, 2009) may be the foregoing reason for the mass media from the individuals who are a part of the institution, I believe there are other roles the media providers take on too. Because of the global instant reach of today’s media, activists or humanitarians use the tools to get messages out to the public quickly. Using the earlier example of the Tsunami that hit Japan, how fast did we see Red Cross commercials, texting 90999 to make an instant $10 donation to the relief effort? The conflict viewpoint from the media providers is that it is a tight competition for scarce resources and the old way of doing business is gone. Many local newspaper circulations have closed shop do to in your face current events television programs. Additionally, with so many providers on the market and the advent of pay television and radio, the marketing dollar is dwindling. For example, like many other consumers, I subscribe to XMSirius satellite radio because I loathe the promotion of consumption all the time. So, the satellite radio company is making the â€Å"advertising† dollar vice the media mogul. The interactionist view from the media providers is this perspective is the one that helps us understand one most important aspect of the mass media system – the audience (Schaefer, 2009). The media giants know they would be washed up without the consumer. The interactionists have ways to keep the audience involved in the programming. Some example of how the audience participate in the programming are the reality completion shows like American Idol, Survivor, Dances with the Stars, to name a few. Viewers have the opportunity to vote for their favorite player. The Mass Media and Social Change Social lives have changed tremendously with the introduction of mass media into lives. An example of how media coverage can be functional, contrasting, and interactive can be seen in the reporting of the protests surrounding the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. Catherine Luther and Mark Miller analyzed pro-war and anti-war coverage in eight US newspapers and showed how reporters were more likely to use illegitimate cues when referring to anti-war protestors, while using legitimate cues to refer to pro-war campaigners (Barker, 2008). Americans are either for or against the war and turn to the media for information. Differences of opinion are a valid way to gain insight into a society or cause. Lastly, the power of the media will generate interest to get people to come out and support. The View from the Audience The mass media are distinguished from other social institutions by the necessary presence of an audience (Schaefer 2009). Without an audience, media products would cease to exist. The functionalism perspective from the audience is most anything you want or need can be accessed, purchased, researched, and you can even merge types of media into one source. The conflict with today’s mass media is the unfiltered aspect meaning the freedom of press versus protecting our children from some of the bad things seen on the media outlets. Another conflict the audience has with mass media is members of an audience do not all interpret media in the same way. Often their response is influenced by their social characteristics such as occupation, race, education, and income (Schaefer, 2009). Interactionist view on social interaction in today’s media product offer more freedom of broadcasting and less freedom to censor. Conclusion The media has had a huge impact on society over the last two to three decades with the significant advances in technology. Although instant media is most times unfiltered, mass media has grown because of advanced technological means offering instant global reach while greatly influencing social changes. Viewers have instant news, entertainment, and socializing opportunities via many different types of media tools. From the functionalist view, and the interactionist, the mass media’s biggest change has come with the introduction of the internet. The contrast to the movement of socialization and instant information is the increased freedom of information that is shared throughout the media tools and the risk of unfiltered information to certain viewers. How to cite The Impact of Mass Media, Papers

Arctic Monkeys Whatever People Say I Am, That’s What I’m Not free essay sample

â€Å"Anticipation has a habit to set you up for disappointment,† sings Arctic Monkeys front-man Alex Turner, and if anyone should know, its him. In barely a year, his band of Sheffield teenagers has gone from an unsigned garage band posting their demos online to the biggest band in Britain with â€Å"Whatever People Say I Am, Thats What Im Not† becoming the fastest selling British debut ever. Anticipation had been mounting even before the band signed to buzz-label Domino. Their sold-out hometown gigs were attended by rabid fans from all over the country. With all the hype around the bands fame, its easy to forget the music, which does not disappoint. The band is centered around Turner and his poetic tales of youth in suburban England. His words are sung with passion, and the speed and precision of a rap artist. He tells the angry tales of many teens in Sheffield and the many English towns like it. We will write a custom essay sample on Arctic Monkeys Whatever People Say I Am, That’s What I’m Not or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Hes angry at rude bouncers, girlfriends with less than sunny dispositions, and the countless unoriginal bands jumping onto the scene. As Turners accented vocals are laid down thicker than molasses, the Monkeys back him up with a tight post punk that contains more hooks in one song than most bands can achieve in a whole album. Last October, the Monkeys dropped their first single, â€Å"I Bet You Look Good On The Dance Floor.† This raucous number, which debuted at number one on the British singles chart, gets the album into full swing in the number two slot. From there, the CD barely lets up its racecar pace, with a string of solid songs that barely push three minutes each. The combination of jittery power chords and swiftly picked riffs wins on almost every track. But the Monkeys save their best for last, and the last three songs end with a bang. â€Å"When The Sun Goes Down† is a grimy song about the guys and gals who roam the dark streets. Turners wit is evident around every lyrical turn as he croons, â€Å"So whos that girl there?/I wonder what went wrong so that she had to roam the streets/She dont do major credit cards/I doubt she does receipts/Its all not quite legitimate.† Next is the scornful â€Å"From the Ritz to the Rubble,† during which Turner angrily describes his failed odyssey into a nightclub, complete with put-downs to the condescending bouncer. The album closes with the epic â€Å"A Certain Romance.† This five-and-a-half minute opus is filled with bouncy ska rhythms, a poignant solo, and Turners constant stream of above-par lyrics. He comments on the sunken state of small-town England with striking clarity and verbosity. When the song and album come to a close, the listener feels surprisingly satisfied. The ultimate triumph is not the songs themselves, but the emotions they provoke. Every song is filled with lust, passion, and the desirous rage that flow through the veins of the teenage spirit. Its through these songs that the Arctic Monkeys claim their title as the hottest young British band today.

Analysis Speech In Favor of Capital Punishment by John Stuart Mills

My Childhood Nightmare

My Childhood Nightmare ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ My nightmare followed a series of events in my life from the age of about five when I was old enough to understand things. My twin brother Bernard was born with a heart defect that required major surgery. His condition was so acute that the doctors told the family he would only live for four years after the diagnosis. However, with the encouragement and support offered by the family, Bernard fought his condition bravely until the age of twenty when he finally gave up the fight.ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ It was around midnight in summer when Bernard lost the battle. I remember lying on top of my bed that night, unable to sleep, just thinking of Bernard in hos pital following his second major operation. Everything was quiet; all you could hear was the sound of hungry foxes in the nearby bushes searching for food, dogs barking in the neighborhood. I gazed from one corner of the room to another as my mind wandered as to whether the operation was going to save Bernard's life.Following the operation early that afternoon, Bernard's condition deteriorated. He was on a life support machine and his chances of survival were very slim. The telephone rang shortly after midnight and I rushed to pick it up. It was the hospital informing us that Bernard had passed away.ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ ÂÆ'‚‚ Two days later, Bernard was put to rest. Traditionally, as a twin, I had to undergo some customary practices. This is a tradition practiced among twins when one dies. There is a myth behind this that non performance of this ritual has adverse mental, emotional and socia l effect on the remaining twin. It is believed that the spirit of the deceased will live in the living twin's body, which in turn hinders the living twin's control of his/her life. This...

Festival and events Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Festival and events - Essay Example In addition, we have also approached for additional funding from the Virgin Australia Airlines Pty Ltd that offers sponsorship based on their internal evaluations for events that deliver community benefits that align to the direction of the company. In this note, the company agreed to donate $1000 to sponsor the night trivia. Further, the Toyota company also sponsored the event by donating $1200. Further, we were keen in controlling the costs of organizing the event by ensuring that we select a venue that is cost effective. Our choice of venue for the event is Apple cross Anglican Church where it is possible to reduce the total cost for holding the event while still making the guests to have fun. The main hall areas in the Apple cross Anglican Church can host a maximum of about 230 guests at a cost of $20 per hour after 6pm for non-profit events. In addition, the venue has other additional offers such as tables and soft drinks. Further, we have approached the Sound Guys Company where we have obtained discounted sound system at a cost of $70 for the event. All these additional resources make the cost of holding the event in the venue to be within our limited budget. In order to attract a large number of guests, we have organized some prizes and gifts that will be given to the participants of night trivia. For instance, we have approached Dymocks book shop who agreed to donate different types of books in order to support the event. In addition, we have also approached Coles Supermarkets who agreed to support the night trivia by donating food hampers that will play great part in attracting more participants. Further, we were able to get some gifts such as soaps, perfumes and lotions from Elizabeth Shop that will also constitute the prizes to be given out. In order for the participants to win the gifts, the trivia will be organized in such a way that groups in

The effects of Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The effects of Globalization - Essay Example In economic sphere, globalization brings new opportunities to developing countries through capital injections, new technology and innovative ways of production. After all, the total value of world trade exploded from $57 billion in 1947 to an astonishing $6 trillion in the late 1990s (Easterly 43). In the last few years, the public debate over the alleged benefits and drawbacks of free trade reached a feverish pitch as wealthy Northern countries have increased their efforts to establish a single global market through regional and international trade-liberalization agreements such NAFTA and GATT. Free trade proponents assure the public that the elimination or reduction of existing trade barriers among nations will enhance consumer choice, increase global wealth, secure peaceful international relations, and spread new technologies around the world (Easterly 2001). Following Bhagwati (2001): "Economic globalization constitutes integration of national economies into the international eco nomy through trade, direct foreign investment, short-term capital flows, international flows of workers and humanity generally" (1). There is evidence that some national economies have increased their productivity as a result of free trade. Moreover, there are some benefits that accrue to societies through specialization, competition, and the spread of technology. But it is less clear whether the profits resulting from free trade have been distributed fairly within and among countries. Most studies show that the gap between rich and poor countries is widening at a fast pace (Easterly 34). Free trade proponents have encountered severe criticism from labour unions and environmental groups who claim that the elimination of social control mechanisms has resulted in a lowering of global labour standards, severe forms of ecological degradation, and the growing indebtedness of the global South to the North. The internationalization of trade has gone hand in hand with the liberalization of financial transactions (Webber and Fort, 62). Globalization of financial trading allows for increased mobility among different segments of the financial industry, with fewer restrictions and greater investment opportunities. TNCs (transnational corporations) have consolidated their global operations in an increasingly deregulated global labour market. The availability of cheap labour, resources, and favourable production conditions in the global South has enhanced corporate mobility and profitability. Globalization boosts productivity and improves production processes in LDCs (less developed countries) like China, India, Korea and Singapore. Today, these countries become the core of global production and economic activities (Bhagwat 72). TNCs and new technology bring new cultural patterns and western style of life changing traditions and values of isolated regions. Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe. Obviously, 'culture' is a very broad concept; it is frequently used to describe the whole of human experience. In order to avoid the ensuing problem of overgeneralization, it is important to make analytical distinctions between aspects of

Preformance Managemant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Preformance Managemant - Essay Example For instance, there are assumptions that managers might undertake when taking evaluation of an employee. Sometimes, the responses from an employee may not be reflective of the potential and skills that he possesses. Thus, at this point, it is expected that the manager would assume faulty quotes for the employee’s service within the organization. At some point, the main essence of performance appraisal or management may not be fulfilled because the manager may be biased or have an opinion which is built before the appraisal process (Cardy and Leonard). As per research, another reason which has been noted to affect managers is the psychological underpinning of performance management. At some point, managers may feel that they are insecure about their own positions because performance management requires a lot of evaluation and understanding. It should be noted that managers feel burdened with the strategic planning of needed for performance management within an organization (Cardy and Leonard). Finally, the most important reason behind resistance of managers towards performance management is the fact that they would have to set targets for their subordinates. As a result, it is expected that some of the subordinates would show resentment towards the managers. Therefore, an air of miscommunication arises that does not make the team and manager feel confident or communicative about each other (Cardy and Leonard). Other than this, it is noted that managers would focus on day to day achievements of the individuals. But it is ineffective because managers should look at employees as team members. It is due to this reason that they stay motivated and communicative within an organization. Secondly, managers believe that all employees are similar which only false assumptions are. Managers need to understand that all employees have different responsibilities and skills. Thirdly, managers often

The Value Chain Analysis: Sony

The Value Chain Analysis: Sony According to Porter (1985, cited in Gershon and Kanayama, 2002:115), strategic planning is a set of managerial decisions and actions that determine the long-term performance of an organisation. Lasserre (2003:33) agrees with this suggesting further that a company business strategy is a set of fundamental choices which define its value proposition to the market, how it intends to build and sustain a competitive business system and how it organises itself. This means in order for Sony to regain its global competitive advantage it has to develop effective business strategy, which will provide the organisation with clear direction, tactics, improved communication and as a result better organisational growth and performance (Yavitz and Newman, 1982:10). However, in order to develop and implement right strategic decision Thompson and Martin (2005:138-141) suggest that organisation have to pay attention to internal and external analysis. Conversely, they suggest that whilst analytical frame works can provide valuable insight into many issues, by themselves they cannot provide the answers. Consequently, they provide a base for evaluating the effectiveness of current and proposed strategies. Internal Factors/Analysis In order to develop the right strategy the organisation has to take into account several internal factors that may affect business environment. (Thompson and Martin, 2005:145-155) For example, analysis of strengths and weaknesses focuses on internal factors that may give Sony certain advantages in meeting the needs of its target markets, such as ability to (re)act to environmental influences quicker than competitors. (SWOT, PESTEL, Porters 5. Appendix 1) Culture For example, understanding core competencies and culture will enable Sony to boast its organisational performance and thus increase its market share. Hofstede (1991:50) agrees with this suggesting that strong culture enables employees to see the goal alignment and thus motivates them to higher levels of performance, as shared values make people feel good about the organisation and commit their capability and potential sincerely for the company, as a result, creating competitive advantage for the organisation. Deal and Kennedy (2000:3-20) agree with it, suggesting that the more highly successful companies are those that exhibit a strong organisational culture. They also identify several component parts to a solid organisational culture, including values, heroes, and rites and rituals. For example, values are the intrinsic beliefs that members hold for an organisation. It can be said that Sony displays many features of a traditional Japanese company, for example there is a sense of fam ily and/or missionary passion that is decidedly Japanese in approach. Most of Sonys top officials are also Japanese and together they share in the companys collective mission. Sony also carefully grooms its future leaders over many years of service. However, writers like Bennis (1986, Cited in Armstrong, 2006) oppose that the single most important determinant of corporate culture is the behaviour of the chief executive officer, as the CEO is the person most responsible for shaping the beliefs, motivations and expectations for the organization as a whole. The importance of the CEO is particularly evident when it comes to the formation of business strategy, for example, CEO Nobuyuki Idei has embraced the principle that digital communications must be at the centre of Sonys competitive business strategy (Digital Dream Kid, 1996). Disregarding of contrasting views, the above suggests that it is crucial for Sony to maintain and take pride in its organisational culture, as it will provide Sony with competitive advantage through attracting, motivating and retaining the best talent, promoting organisational values and believes, as well as promoting the spirit of innovation (SWOT, Appendix 1), as it will help the company to grow and develop, and thus achieve further organisational development. Resource Based View In order for Sony to achieve competitive advantage and organisational development, it may be suggested the organisation applies the Resource Based View (RBV) to strategy, which deals with the competitive environment facing the organisation taking an inside-out approach (Johnson et al, 2005:114). Henry (2008:129-150) agrees with this suggesting that RBV emphasises the internal capabilities of the organisation in formulating strategy to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage in its markets and industries, suggesting further that in some cases organisational capabilities may allow it to create new markets, such as Apples iPod and Toyotas hybrid cars. This means that by analysis internal capabilities Sony can determine the strategic choices it can make in competing in external environment. Thus, for example, analysis (SWOT, PESTEL and Porters 5, Appendix 1) suggests that Sonys strengths lies with its brands strong name and reputation for innovation and excellence, thus it may be sug gested that by reducing portfolio of electronic goods and focusing attention on fewer products and new technologies, for example in TV market, organisation may once again become market leader. However, Henry (2008:150) critiques that RBV shows very little on the vital issues of how resources can develop and change, or become redundant over time. Priem and Butler (2001, cited in Henry, 2008:150) agree with it, proposing that RBV lacks detail and therefore is difficult to implement. Latter suggests that although RBV may offer a good insight into current resource situation, other analytical tools have to be used to ensure a correct picture of internal environment, such as, for example, Value Chain Analysis. Value Chain Analysis Porter (1985, cited in Thompson and Martin, 2005:251) argues that in search for competitive advantage a firm must be considered as part of a wider system suppliers, firm, distributors, consumers a supply chain, which is a process by which cost savings and service differentiation can be achieved. As part of the process of evaluating the strategic competences of the organisation a resource audit can provide substantial insights into the competitive possibilities open to the organisation. The model against which to do this is Porters value chain (Appendix 2). Thus, value chain analysis may provide Sony with a framework for evaluating relative significance of various activities undertaken by an organisation, from the perspectives of cost and value added (Robson, 1994:41). By applying the results of SWOT and Porters 5 Forces Analysis to Value Chain of Sony it can be suggested that the organisation focuses on high-quality/high cost exclusive products, offering its customers excellent fol low-up Service afterwards. This suggests that Inbound Logistics and the retail Operations must be tightly managed to keep the cost of production and delivery down, and thus offer a higher profit margin. SWOT and Porters 5 also suggest that Technology Development and Engineering would have to be reorganised in order to be able to keep up with progress of the industry, and thus competitors. In order to achieve this, it could be suggested that Sony should reduce the portfolio of extensive product range and focus attention on best-selling and most promising products. Robson (1994:45-48) suggests latter can be achieved by applying the Boston Matrix to product portfolio, as well as undertake the analysis of Core Competences offered by Prahalad and Hamel (1990, cited in Robson, 1994:46-48) (Appendix 3). Similar to Inbound Logistics, it could also be suggested that Sonys Outbound Logistics, such as warehousing and distribution, would have to be re-organised in order to achieve most cost eff ective outcome. SWOT, PESTEL and Porters 5 also suggest that Sony possess brilliant opportunity for Marketing and Sales, as the organisation owns Sony Entertainment and thus, is able to use media productions as an extensive free advertising for its product range. For example, using Sony laptops and other gadgets in new 007 blockbuster, to re-introduce the organisation to world-wide audience, as well as indirectly advertise its products. The analysis of Support Activities, based on the outcome of SWOT, PESTLE and Porters 5 also suggests several recommendations. For example, being global organisation, Sony suffers from a duplication of workforce (Human Resource Management). Thus, to reduce replication it could be suggested Sony performs major reductions in global workforce (Ferrari, 2012), which could potentially lead to easier flow of communication, and thus, quicker strategic and general day-to-day responses, and as a result, help return company to profitability. For Technology Development and Engineering analysis suggests that it may be worth drastically reducing product portfolio (particularly portfolio of TV models). This could potentially drastically improve Research and Development, allowing it to keep up with technological progress, and giving it time to work on new technologies. Baring in mind the above analysis, Henry (2011:112) suggests that organisations value chain activities represent the cornerstone of competitive advantage. And recommends that its value chain should not be seen as a series of independent activities, but as a system of interdependent activities, where each value chain activity is related to the others by way of linkages in the value chain. For example, Toyotas just-in-time production reduces inventory and material handling. Therefore Sonys competitive advantage can derive not only from the activities themselves, but also from linkages between its different activities, internal, as well as external. (Henry, 2011:112) External Factors Stakeholders and Corporate Social Responsibility Foot and Hook (2008:23) suggest that there is a wider group of stakeholders that may affect business strategy. For example, apart from the shareholders, workforce, suppliers and customers, organisation may also be affected by local communities, government, and pressure groups. As Johnson et al (2005:585) suggest it is impossible to meet the demands of all the stakeholders, as they invariably conflict. This suggests that Sony must prioritise stakeholder demands and thus, balancing out competing requirements create a strategy that will satisfy main stakeholder groups, will be in line with the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of organisation, and in its turn relate to the culture in which the organisation is operating. Thus for example, as it is the core corporate responsibility of Sony Group to the society to pursue its corporate value enhancement through innovation and sound business practice, the organisation conducts CSR activities with a focus on sustainability in two areas t rying to ensure sustainability of its business operations, as well as striving to contribute to the realisation of a sustainable society. For example, Sony has established effective systems for corporate governance and compliance to ensure sound business practices, such as, eco-friendly product cycle from the materials Sony sources, recycles and reuses in manufacture, to the development of smaller packaging that takes less space for more energy-efficient transportation. Sony also believes in the importance of fostering diverse and lively workplaces and employees with a high level of social awareness, which in effect contributes to employee loyalty and thus, reduces staff turnover, which in its turn contributes to competitive advantage of organisation. (Sony, 2012) Conclusions Business strategy is a set of vital choices which define its value proposition to the market, how it intends to build and sustain a competitive business system and how it organises itself. In order to gain competitive advantage organisations may use internal and external analytical tools that will help build a good picture of environment of given organisation. These tools, such as SWOT, PESTEL, Porters 5, RBV and Value Chain suggest that Sony remain a reputable brand, and providing a new strategy and allowing restructuring of the business, may help it regain its competitive advantage in global market. Sony also fully recognises that its business activities affect both society and the environment in direct and indirect ways, thus takes steps to minimise that impact to the best of its ability. Recommendations In order to regain its competitive advantage, it can be proposed that Sony undertakes a drastic restructuring of its business model. For example, it can be suggested that the company will benefit from either minimising the amount of factories across the globe and removing factories from areas affected by hurricanes and floods in order to minimise production costs. Conversely, as more value-added component sourcing, production and logistics may be outsourced to contract manufacturers and trading partners. Portfolio of goods (especially electronic goods, and TV market) have to be reduced, allowing RD to focus on bringing excellence to Sonys customers, keeping up with technological advancement and boosting competitiveness of products. The television business may also enhance integration with Sony ´s mobile products and network services, as it aims to offer unique user experiences, drive hardware differentiation and enhance the attractiveness of Sony ´s television line-up. Now owning 100% of Sony Ericsson, with own tablets, VAIO PCs and TVs, Sony can increase product appeal by offering its customers special programmes only available to share between those Sony products (to gain market-share of Apples iPhone, iPod and Apple Mac). A previous culture of inflexibility in product demand forecasting needs to be replaced with product demand sensing and response capabilities linked to constantly changing consumer needs and market trends. Through developing these new strategies, accelerating selection and focus, Sony can invest in core and new businesses which could help to transform organisation into a more profitable structure with competitive advantage against its competitors. References Books Armstrong M., (2005), Strategic Human Resource Management: A Guide To Action, 3rd Edition, London: Kogan Page Deal T. E. and Kennedy A. A., (2000), Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, New York: Perseus Books Publishing Foot M. and Hook C., (2008), Introducing Human Resources, 5th Edition, Essex: Pearson Education Press Garratt B., (1995), Developing Strategic Thought: Rediscovering the Art of Direction-Giving, Berkshire: McGraw-Hill Book Company Europe Henry A. E., (2011), Understanding Strategic Management, 2nd Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press Hofstede G., (1991), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, London: McGraw-Hill Johnson G., Scholes K. and Whittington R., (2005), Exploring Corporate Strategy: Text and Cases, 7th Edition, Essex: Pearson Education Limited Robson W., (1994), Strategic Management and Information Systems: An Integrated Approach, London: Pitman Publishing Tapscott D., (2009), Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is Changing Your World, London: McGraw Hill Thompson J. and Martin F., (2005), Strategic Management: Awareness and Change, 5th Edition, London: Thomson Yavitz B. and Newman W. H., (1982), Strategy in Action: The Execution, Politics, and Payoff of Business Planning, London: Collier Macmillan Publishers On-line Journals, Articles and Websites Black J., (2003), Big Music: Win Some, Lose a Lot More?, BusinessWeek Online, Business Source Online web.ebscohost.com, accessed on 10 November 2012 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News, (27th October 2011), Sony buys the rest of mobile phone firm Sony Ericsson www.bbc.co.uk, accessed on 4 November 2012 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News, (21 May 2009), Sony to halve number of suppliers www.bbc.co.uk, accessed on 22 November 2012 Consumer Electronics, (30th July 2009), Sony Is Still Feeling the Recessions Bite, Bloomberg Business Week www.businessweek.com, accessed on 4 November 2012 Corporate information/Environmental (1 April 2012), Sony news.sel.sony.com, accessed on 7 November 2012 Corporate Social Responsibility (2012), Sony www.sony.co.uk, accessed on 29 November 2012 East J., (2007), The Electronic Industry: The Power to Change, Portable Design, 13 (10) pp 16-19, Business Source Complete web.ebscohost.com, accessed on 7 November 2012 Fatakia K., (3rd February 2012), Sony Corporation: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats www.dailyfinance.com, accessed 2 November 2012 Ferrari, B. (2012), Descartes Systems to Acquire Europe Based Infodis, Supply Chain Matters, 04 June 2012, [Online]. Available at: www.theferrarigroup.com, accessed on 20 November 2012 Glendinning L., (4th November 2012), The Telegraph, Sony PlayStation Store: why the redesign matters www.telegraph.co.uk, accessed on 4 November 2012 Hall R., (1992), The Strategic Analysis of Intangible Resources, Strategic Management Journal, 13 (20), pp135-144 http://web.ebscohost.com, accessed on 19 March 2010 Kosner A. W., (25th June 2012), New Sony Google TV Set-Top Box Disappoints, Increases Desire for Apple TV www.forbes.com, accessed on 3 November 2012 Kosner A. W., (28th June 2012), Google Nexus Q: Simple, Sleek, Sexy And Made In The USA www.forbes.com, accessed on 3 November 2012 Our Working Culture (2012) Sony www.sony.co.uk, accessed on 26 November 2012 The Times 100, (no date), Responding to changes in the market environment: A Jessops case study businesscasestudies.co.uk, accessed on 9 November 2012 Singh P. P., (13th October 2011), BBC News, Can Sony succeed where Sony-Ericsson partnership failed? www.bbc.co.uk, accessed on 4 November 2012 Sony Announces Revision of Consolidated Forecast for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 2012, (10th April 2012), Sony www.sony.net, accessed on 4 November 2012 Sony Annual Report, (2009), Sony www.sony.net, accessed on 4 November 2012 Sony Global Supply Chain Management (2012), Sony www.sony.net, accessed on 22 November 2012 Tang H., Misra R. and Shanholt E., (2012), Sony Corporation, Griffin Consulting Group Economics-files.pomona.edu , accessed on 20 November 2012 The Video Game Industry, (no date), Social and Environmental Factors sites.duke.edu, accessed on 5 November 2012 Yasu Mariko, (1st November 2012), Sony Posts 7th Straight Loss as TV Sales Slump on Economy www.businessweek.com, accessed on 3 November 2012 Bibliography Ciborra C. and Jelassi T., (1995), Strategic Information Systems, Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley Sons Ltd BBC News, (27th October 2011), Sony boss Sir Howard Stringer on Ericsson purchase www.bbc.co.uk, accessed on 4 November 2012 Houlden B., (1993), Understanding Company Strategy: An Introduction to Thinking and Acting Strategically, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers McCurry J., (30th July 2009), Sony sales plunge by a fifth in two months, The Guardian www.guardian.co.uk, accessed on 4 November 2012 Stacey R., (1993), Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics, London: Pitman Publishing SWOT Analysis Strengths Over the years Sony has built a strong, reputable and well-known brand. This is highlighted by the fact that the company was labelled in a 2011 survey as Asias most valued brand (Fatakia, 2012) Sonys culture is aimed at nurturing talents, where organisation helps its employees to foster working practices that help to regularly replenish energy and build physical, emotional and mental resilience. Sony culture emphasizes a spirit of freedom and open-mindedness, and a fighting spirit to innovate as well as takes a Worksmart approach to help employees achieve an acceptable work/life balance (Sony, 2012) The company has established a broad sales network, registered in approximately 200 countries and territories (Tang et al, 2012) One of Sonys greatest strengths is their ability to produce innovative, quality products, or as Sonys web page states Sony innovations ´ have become part of mainstream culture (Sony, 2012) The company is synonymous with technological excellence and has a rich heritage of technological expertise. Besides creating the VCR, Trinitron, and Walkman, the company facilitated in development of the magnetic recording tape, the compact disc, and the Blu-Ray disc, used today as a medium for high-definition video playback. Its latest innovation, a Crystal LED television, was well received at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas (Fatakia, 2012) Out of all its products, Sonys success with the PlayStation is most notable it has been successful since launch, and still sees tremendous consumer demand as by 2000, it was accounting for a third of Sonys operating profits (Glendinning, 2012) Sony has a number of Japanese and foreign patents, and is licensed to use a number of patents owned by other organisations. Sony considers their overall license position beneficial to their operations (Tang et al, 2012) The release of PlayStation 2 triggered a high rise of shares ($300 per share, an all-time high) Sony has a strong position in the entertainment industry with Sony Music and Sony Pictures, which has been beneficial to the company by off-setting losses in its electronics/consumer-products division Sony also provides financial services, such as life and auto insurance and banking, that accumulate Weaknesses The high cost of media production, especially in its television business, as well as loss of market share to cheaper manufacturers, such as LG and Samsung, has affected the companys pricing strategy. In addition, instead of forecasted loss of $2.7 billion during the fiscal year that ended 31 March, the organisation is now expecting to suffer a loss of $6.3 billion due to cumulative losses of consolidated deferred tax returns and additional tax expense for the transfer of profits between Japan and selected Sonys overseas subsidiaries (Sony, 2012) While diversifying into too many business segments, Sony has shifted its focus from its core competency making great consumer-electronic products. This has resulted in a distortion in Sonys brand. Apple, which is also in the consumer electronics space, has managed to focus on just a few products, build competency, and make them incredibly successful (Fatakia, 2012) Furthermore, the product lines have few connections between themselves, and therefore do not generate many network externalities or cost advantages (Tang et al, 2012) The current financial performance of organisation is weak, showing high liquidity risks, decreasing sales, slowly recovering profitability, low operating efficiency, underperforming stocks, and low investor confidence (Tang et al, 2012) The current management team has been relatively conservative, with departments working in silo, which led to little, if no flow of communication. While restructuring has frequently been implemented, it was usually done on a small scale. Strategically significant mergers and acquisitions were seldom conducted (Tang et al, 2012) As Sony expanded into more segments and geographic locations, they became more sensitive to exchange rates and interest rates that are exogenous factors out of Sonys control (Tang et al, 2012) Japanese laws and the countrys lingering culture of lifetime employment limit the ability of Japanese firms to close plants and shed jobs, thus resulting in incapability of the organisation to quickly adapt to fast-changing market environment, thus resulting in further financial losses Opportunities The company has the opportunity to enter the healthcare-imaging sector, as in September Sony agreed to invest 50 billion yen in Olympus, the worlds biggest maker of endoscopes. Under agreement, Sony will by 11.46% stake and become the largest shareholder in two steps. The two companies are planning to set up a joint venture by December 31 to develop, make and sell new endoscopes and other medical devices (Yasu, 2012) Sony Google TV, and particularly Nexus Q has a potential of regaining its TV market as, in comparison to Apple TV, Roku and similar products, Q is the only product that combines streaming internet content to a TV with a built-in 25 watt-per-channel sound amplifier that can run two sets of speakers. And its the only streaming TV product that allows itself to be controlled by more than one device simultaneously. And one thing Google has been making a point of saying about the Nexus Q, that Apple cannot say about any of its products, is that it is Designed and Manufactured in the USA, thus making it more attractive to those customers who are concerned with the ethics behind product manufacture (Kosner, 2012) As the organisation wanted to integrate its phone division with its mobile games machine and tablet computer units, the purchase of full control of mobile phone maker Sony Ericsson may give Sony the opportunity to act independently and innovate its smart phone and tablet market. The transaction that also includes patent, which is an important component of success in the smartphone arena, as it can give organisation the right to block sales of the competitors and vice-versa. With already established network of marketing, distribution and retail channels, it may help push through the products much quicker (Singh/BBC News, 2011) The company can take advantage of its movie and music business along with its experience in the gaming space to deliver value-added content to support and integrate its product line. It has talked about doing this with a four-screen strategy, which looks like a good concept (Fatakia, 2012) Kazuo Hirai, appointed CEO of Sony in February 2012, might bring changes to the company. His expertise in computer entertainment and PlayStation might bring more focus to the firms product lines (Tang et al, 2012) Threats As many of Sonys manufacturing plants are located in Japan, area that is prone to tsunamis and earthquakes, the company faces a constant threat of damage to the facilities and machinery and thus, disruptions in production line, which may lead to further loses of operating profit Organisation faces strong price competition from competitors such as Samsung, LG and even Tescos own electrical goods line Technika, who are gaining attraction from customers with lower-cost products such as televisions and mobile devices (Fatakia, 2012) Introduction of Apple TV, interactive television increased falling demand on Sony products as consumers switch to Apple (Kosner, 2012) Foreign exchange rate fluctuations can affect financial results because a large portion of Sonys sales and assets (more than 75%) are denominated in currencies other than the Yen (Tang et al, 2012) Threats from hacking attacks. Hacking attack on the companys PlayStation network resulted in leakage of confidential customer data, such as credit-card information As the global recession continues, consumers are no longer spending much money on electronic products, as they now have smartphones to satisfy most of their needs (Kosner, 2012) Sonys business restructuring and transformation efforts are costly and may not attain their objectives (Tang et al, 2012) PESTEL Analysis Political Businesses can be affected by many aspects of government policy. In particular, all businesses must comply with the law. They must also consider the impact of any forthcoming legislation on their operations. Subsequently, this may require taking action before the legislation comes into effect. (The Times 100) One issue that affects manufacturers and retailers of electronic goods is the disposal of these products. Thus, recycling is high on the public agenda. There are government initiatives to promote more recycling, which are often backed by legislation. (The Times 100) As the global recession had a negative effect on the economy of many countries, governments had to adopt a nationalist approach in an effort to stabilise their domestic economy and become more self-sufficient, by for example, raising trade barriers, such as taxes, tariffs and quotas. (Business Europe, 2009) This means Sony, alongside other multinational organisations was affected by decrease in exports and/or heavier import/export costs which may have reduced its global profits. The Government also has the power to change minimum wage, tax, VATs and other expenditures. This means even higher expenditures that, as the report shows, may be critical for the bottom line of the organisation. (Sony, 2012) Economic The global recession has been a threat to Sony since 2009, as Consumer Electronics for Bloomberg Business Week reported on July 30, Sony posted a $271 million operating loss for the April-June quarter, down from a $772 million profit in the same quarter a year ago, revenues dropped 19%, to $16.8 billion with the forecasts for an operating loss of $1.16 billion in the fiscal year through March 2010. (Consumer Electronics, 2009) Additionally, the strength of the yen against the dollar and the euro has reduced Sonys exports making products less competitive and as a result reduced organisational revenue, especially in overseas markets (Sony Annual Report, 2009; Hall, 1992) Social One of the most important social trends of new generation is the development and increase in use of internet activities, such as online shopping, social networks and media on-demand. The Net Generation also demands its products to perform fast (Tapscott, 2009:15), and be of high-quality and multi-functional (Sonny Annual Report, 2009). As the new generation likes to be creative and be able to personalise its products, the technology have to offer high quality art applications that will allow them to do so. As video games are gaining an enormous place in society most kids are exposed to video games in some sort of capacity growing up, Sony have to ensure that their technology does not lose competitive advantage to their opponents, such as Wii (Nintendo) and/or Xbox (Microsoft). Technological The electronics industry is very well known for the fast development of the cutting edge products that facilitate our everyday life and business. Introduction of the internet, smartphones, as well as recent development of TVs that are connected to the internet shows a direction for smart, multi-functional devices. This means, in order for Sony to keep up with its main competitors, such as Apple, the organisation has to adopt the same strategies and be able to offer its customers high quality multifunctional products. Environmental Electronic devices that improve our quality of life are at the same time posing a great threat and contribute immensely towards global warming (East, 2007). Almost 50 million tons of electronic products are disposed of each year, and the figure continues to grow as the lifespan of new devices continues to fall (The Video Game Industry). As a leader in the consumer el

Band :: essays research papers

MILES DAVIS This is my report on Miles Davis that I have written for band class. When I first started I didn't even have a clue who Miles Davis was. But for the past week I have been working on this report I have began to realize the amazing life that this famous musician has lived. So I hope you learn as much as I did on this wonderful trumpeter. Even in the beginning he was already miles ahead. It's very evident that Miles knew and lived by that old axiom if it's named, then it's outmoded. Miles Dewey Davis was born May 25, 1926 in Alton, Illinois and grew up in East St. Louis. Miles collected records and for his 13th birthday was given his first trumpet. By age 16, Miles was playing professionally and received his first real taste of what playing jazz was like when Billy Eckstine's band was traveling through and needed to replace a sick horn player. At that time, the band employed Diz and Bird and for two weeks Miles soaked it up! Undoubtedly, the fire had been ignited. After high school, Miles was off to study music and enrolled in Juilliard in September 1944. Practicing his ass off every day and feeding his mind every night Miles' sound was taking shape. As a sideman, Miles recorded his first recording in New York with singer "Rubberleggs" Williams and later recorded "Now,s The Time" & "Ko-Ko" in Parker's quintet. Miles Davis was known to the general public primarily as a trumpet player. However, in the world of music he had a great deal of influence not only as a innovative bandleader but also as a composer. His music and style was important in the development of improvisational techniques incorporating modes rather than standard chord changes. Miles experiments with modal playing reached its apotheosis in 1959 with his recording of Kind Of Blue. Brought up in the Bebop tradition and taught under the auspice of Bird and others, Miles was now ready to lead. After a few solo records, Miles transformed jazz into it's next phase with his BIRTH OF THE COOL sessions, which were recorded 1949-50. These sessions took Bebop, with it's fast running styled chords, which changed on every beat, to a more modal concept and chords that changed every other measure, like in the tune "Dig". As a experiment, Miles formed a nine piece band, with Mulligan, Evans and Lewis as arrangers and incorporating Gunther Schuller on French Horn.

Family Bond Essay

The family system is the most conspicuous bond in the social scheme of things. This bond ties people to each other with invisible strings of love and care, each one bonded to all others in his/her entirety. The family that consists of the elder’s brothers, sisters and children are all bound to each other no matter how far away they may be from each other physically. The family is the inspiration of each individual member and, above all, it is the objective for which each individual member lives and works. The encouragement from the family helps one to achieve marathon goals, and it is the family only that, at time forces a person to adopt the wrong path. Thus the family is of so much importance to every member that, its bonds are in reality responsible for whatever each member achieves or loses. The family is as if the backbone on which the bodies of the individuals in it stand. It is the family that acts as a booster for each one in it and, it is the same family that at times becomes a stumbling block in the growth of an individual in it. This is because the bonds of love are too great to be set apart and as we often hear that love is blind. It is this same blind love of the family that may at times prove to be a hindrance to growth For example, a child in the family may be brilliant in studies but the extreme and blind love of the parents wants to see him as the next Sachin Tendulkar. They, in trying to fulfill their ambition may try to impose their desire on the child and he, in the bargain loses track of studies. At the same time since he has no inclination for cricket, he does not manage to achieve anything in that sphere also. Thus, due to the unquestioned love and bond of the family, the child loses out on both fronts. He is unable to become Sachin Tendulkar and neither has he been able to keep pace with his studies. In this way, the bonds of the family prove to be disastrous also. At the same time, with the backing and support of the family, a child can work wonders as, it is here he gets all the encouragement and back up support. Besides being a support for the children of a family it has often been heard that, b ehind every successful man, there is a woman. This again goes to show how much the backing of a good co-operative wife helps the man also to grow in his career. Thus it is seen that the family bonds play a very prominent part in making or breaking each member of the family. It is from broken homes that, drug addicts, juvenile criminals are also created, so much is the importance of the bonds of a family. So much for parents and children in a family. Even grandparents have an intrinsic role to play in the growth of the individuals. If the children play and have fun with grandparents, they develop a liking for elders, and they learn to respect elders. Once they see their parents behaving well with the grandparents they also learn how to behave with elders. This presence of elders in a family makes the bonds still more pleasant and more lasting. Like everything else, bonds of a family also have their advantages and disadvantages. However, the disadvantages are so minuscule that, the prominent advantages overpower them and the essence of family life and its bonds appear to be just worth it. Where there is a family to fall back upon, even hard times of misfortune, it becomes easier to bear and this is just what family bonds is all about. These bonds are so strong that, no power can break them or destroy them. It is however great luck to get the fortune of a fully blooming family with all its bonds in place.

Humans Effect on the Environment essays

Humans Effect on the Environment essays The Effect of Humans on The Environment The Greenhouse Effect/Global Warming The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that Earth experiences. Global warming is an increase in the earth ¡s temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of 'green house gases ¡. Water vapor, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane trap energy from the sun. These gases contribute to the greenhouse effect. The carbon dioxide comes mainly from burning fossil fuels in power stations. The nitrous oxide is released from a fertiliser used in agriculture. The extra methane is produced in coal mining, natural gas production and distribution. All fossil fuels when burned produce carbon dioxide. The graph shows how much each gas contributes to the greenhouse effect, taking into account how much of it there is and how much and how radiation it can absorb. If it weren ¡t for these gases the heat would escape from the Earth into space. These gases warm our world, without them Earth would be about 60 F cooler, therefore Earth would not be warm enough to live in. However, if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual causing problem for plants, animals and humans. The actual rise is not very much but the Earth ¡s ecosystem is very fragile and small changes can have large effects: h Melt icecaps, which leads to pack ice. h Sharp fall in grain crop yields. h Failure of anchovy fisheries. h Short wet winters, long dry summers. h Rise in sea level, which leads to flooding. h In some places it will become, more humid than before and more drier than before. The serious worry is that the rising sea levels from the melting polar ice caps could severely flood many countries. Reducing the use of fossil fuels would considerably reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced. This can be achieved by us...

Word Choice Quick vs. Fast

Word Choice Quick vs. Fast Word Choice: Quick vs. Fast Whooosh! Zooom! Wheee! Today, we have a need for speed, so we’re looking at the words â€Å"quick† and â€Å"fast.† Both terms are related to rapidity, but there is a subtle difference between them that many people overlook. So, join us for a speedy look at how to use these words correctly! Quick (Speedily or in a Short Time) One use of the adjective â€Å"quick† is to refer to something that happens at speed: John was always quick to respond. The emphasis here is brevity of action. We also see this in another use of this term, which is to show that something happens in a short amount of time: I’ll give your essay a quick look before you hand it in. These uses are similar, but the second doesn’t necessarily require speed. You could have a â€Å"quick nap,† for example, which would be short but static (unless you fall asleep on a skateboard at the top of a hill). Seems like a good spot for a â€Å"quick† nap.(Photo: John Chapman/Pyrope) The adverbial form of this word is â€Å"quickly.† â€Å"Quick† and â€Å"quickly† are sometimes used interchangeably, but you should always use â€Å"quick† for nouns and â€Å"quickly† for verbs in formal writing. Fast (At High Speed) â€Å"Fast† is another adjective that refers to something happening at speed: John was always fast to respond. However, it can also be used to describe something that is capable of moving quickly. Or it can indicate that something happens at a high pace: I’ve always loved fast cars. The fast pace of change took some by surprise. The key in these cases is that it about the sustained speed/rate of something, not the time it takes to occur. We say that a car is â€Å"fast,† for example, because this reflects its potential for sustained speed, whereas â€Å"quick† would imply a brief action. An important exception to this is â€Å"fast food,† which is so called because it is made quickly. It does not usually move fast unless you throw it across the room, which is widely considered impolite. If anything, eating it will probably slow you down. In addition, we can use â€Å"fast† as an adverb when describing an action: You always drive too fast. â€Å"Fast† has some other meanings, too, such as â€Å"hard to move† or to abstain from food for a period of time. However, these are much harder to confuse with the word â€Å"quick†! Quick or Fast? These words are often interchangeable when referring to something that happens at speed. But this is not always the case. The key to avoiding errors is therefore considering whether time is relevant. If you’re describing something that happens in a short time, it will be typically be â€Å"quick.† But if it is something that is capable of moving fast or that occurs at a high rate, the correct word will be â€Å"fast.† Quick = Happening at speed or in a short time Fast = Happening at a high speed or rate, or capable of moving at speed

Organization Design Structure Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organization Design Structure - Assignment Example Naturally raised food is hard to come by on such large scale, so Chipotle leaves some of the procurement to regional or local levels in order to supply the best product to the local markets. This also allows Chipotle to leverage other markets when product demand cannot be met in a certain area. This allows the top management to offer leadership to the company to the right way while maintaining core competencies and allowing the operational levels to maintain daily quality standards. This structure is ideal for geographical focus where chipotle’s different geographical units can alter their products to suit the local market. Workplace policies can also be crafted to cater for the specific region only. Lack of competent and qualified managers in newly established units is a greater problem that Chipotle is experiencing. Chipotle can adopt a single tier multidivisional matrix level called New Restaurant Development whose main purpose would to open new stores and to train managers from different regions. This would mean that the new stores would be opened by trained professionals who know how to handle all the problems of opening a new store and how to lean on the local and regional managers for additional help and information. This also would be an excellent way to hold a high quality standard during the most essential part of a new restaurant, the

Civil liberties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Civil liberties - Essay Example Classification of certain things for the safety of the whole society is important and the Patriot Act maintains this classification. Warrants and wire traps should be classified when a terrorist is under question and our rights to know about the surroundings are limited in these situations. However the classification and limited rights should only apply to a person who is known to be linked to terrorist acts. The authorities should make sure that a person is dealing with terrorism before he is taken into consideration for limited rights. In my view our rights should be limited and we should not know about any of the movements done by the government agencies. These acts of limitations would help the government agencies to exploit the terrorists and eliminate terrorism from the grass root level. In conclusion it can be said that our right to know has become very limited in the world today because of the increasing terrorism all over the world.

Leadership in the Field of Criminal Justice Term Paper

Leadership in the Field of Criminal Justice - Term Paper Example The following questions will be asked, discussed, and analyzed: What does it take to become an authentic leader who people want to follow, does every manager need to be a leader, why is leadership portrayed in terms of how managers manage people, why is leadership portrayed in terms of how managers manage people, how can you be said to lead people when you have the authority to tell them what to do, and what does it take to become an authentic leader who people want to follow?   Although the answers to each of these questions vary with relation to the individual, form of management, particular leadership style, and setting in which it is put into practice, broad and overarching implications can be drawn from the applications of the answers to the above questions as will be demonstrated in this brief analysis.  As the report declares the terms have clear connotation and denotation in written and spoken language, when they are put into practice and a firm definition of which one le ads to another can be a bit troublesome.   For this purpose, this brief analysis will work to scrutinize leadership and management as they relate to the field of criminal justice.   It is additionally important to note that each of the questions that this analysis will work to scrutinize have strong interconnected dependence and relationships between one another whereby by answering and analyzing one of the questions parallels and strong inference as well as development can be drawn on the other questions which are analyzed.

Audit Consultant Essay Example for Free

Audit Consultant Essay The Science of Scientific Writing If the reader is to grasp what the writer means, the writer must understand what the reader needs George D. Gopen and Judith A. Swan* *George D. Gopen is associate professor of English and Director of Writing Programs at Duke University. He holds a Ph. D. in English from Harvard University and a J. D. from Harvard Law School. Judith A. Swan teaches scientific writing at Princeton University. Her Ph. D. , which is in biochemistry, was earned at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Address for Gopen: 307 Allen Building, Duke University, Durham, NC 27706 Science is often hard to read. Most people assume that its difficulties are born out of necessity, out of the extreme complexity of scientific concepts, data and analysis. We argue here that complexity of thought need not lead to impenetrability of expression; we demonstrate a number of rhetorical principles that can produce clarity in communication without oversimplifying scientific issues. The results are substantive, not merely cosmetic: Improving the quality of writing actually improves the quality of thought. The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of information and thought, but rather its actual communication. It does not matter how pleased an author might be to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only whether a large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in mind. Therefore, in order to understand how best to improve writing, we would do well to understand better how readers go about reading. Such an understanding has recently become available through work done in the fields of rhetoric, linguistics and cognitive psychology. It has helped to produce a methodology based on the concept of reader expectations. Writing with the Reader in Mind: Expectation and Context Readers do not simply read; they interpret. Any piece of prose, no matter how short, may mean in 10 (or more) different ways to 10 different readers. This methodology of reader expectations is founded on the recognition that readers make many of their most important interpretive decisions about the substance of prose based on clues they receive from its structure. This interplay between substance and structure can be demonstrated by something as basic as a simple table. Let us say that in tracking the temperature of a liquid over a period of time, an investigator takes measurements every three minutes and records a list of temperatures. Those data could be presented by a number of written structures. Here are two possibilities: t(time)=15’, T(temperature)=32? , t=0’, T=25? ; t=6’, T=29? ; t=3’, T=27? ; t=12’, T=32? ; t=9’; T=31? time (min) 0 3 6 9 12 15 temperature(? C) 25 27 29 31 32 32 Precisely the same information appears in both formats, yet most readers find the second easier to interpret. It may be that the very familiarity of the tabular structure makes it easier to use. But, more significantly, the structure of the second table provides the reader with an easily perceived context (time) in which the significant piece of information (temperature) can be interpreted. The contextual material appears on the left in a pattern that produces an expectation of regularity; the interesting results appear on the right in a less obvious pattern, the discovery of which is the point of the table. If the two sides of this simple table are reversed, it becomes much harder to read. temperature(? C) 25 27 29 31 32 32 time(min) 0 3 6 9 12 15. Since we read from left to right, we prefer the context on the left, where it can more effectively familiarize the reader. We prefer the new, important information on the right, since its job is to intrigue the reader. Information is interpreted more easily and more uniformly if it is placed where most readers expect to find it. These needs and expectations of readers affect the interpretation not only of tables and illustrations but also of prose itself. Readers have relatively fixed expectations about where in the structure of prose they will encounter particular items of its substance. If writers can become consciously aware of these locations, they can better control the degrees of recognition and emphasis a reader will give to the various pieces of information being presented. Good writers are intuitively aware of these expectations; that is why their prose has what we call shape. This underlying concept of reader expectation is perhaps most immediately evident at the level of the largest units of discourse. (A unit of discourse is defined as anything with a beginning and an end: a clause, a sentence, a section, an article, etc. ) A research article, for example, is generally divided into recognizable sections, sometimes labeled Introduction, Experimental Methods, Results and Discussion. When the sections are confusedwhen too much experimental detail is found in the Results section, or when discussion and results interminglereaders are often equally confused. In smaller units of discourse the functional divisions are not so explicitly labeled, but readers have definite expectations all the same, and they search for certain information in particular places. If these structural expectations are continually violated, readers are forced to divert energy from understanding the content of a passage to unraveling its structure. As the complexity of the context increases moderately, the possibility of misinterpretation or noninterpretation increases dramatically. We present here some results of applying this methodology to research reports in the scientific literature. We have taken several passages from research articles (either published or accepted for publication) and have suggested ways of rewriting them by applying principles derived from the study of reader expectations. We have not sought to transform the passages into plain English for the use of the general public; we have neither decreased the jargon nor diluted the science. We have striven not for simplification but for clarification. Reader Expectations for the Structure of Prose Here is our first example of scientific prose, in its original form: The smallest of the URF’s (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene. The functional significance of the other URF’s has been, on the contrary, elusive. Recently, however, immunoprecipitation experiments with antibodies to purified, rotenone-sensitive NADH-ubiquinone oxido-reductase [hereafter referred to as respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase or complex I] from bovine heart, as well as enzyme fractionation studies, have indicated that six human URF’s (that is, URF1, URF2, URF3, URF4, URF4L, and URF5, hereafter referred to as ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, ND4L, and ND5) encode subunits of complex I. This is a large complex that also contains many subunits synthesized in the cytoplasm. * [*The full paragraph includes one more sentence: Support for such functional identification of the URF products has come from the finding that the purified rotenone-sensitive NADH dehydrogenase from Neurospora crassa contains several subunits synthesized within the mitochondria, and from the observation that the stopper mutant of Neurospora crassa, whose mtDNA lacks two genes homologous to URF2 and URF3, has no functional complex I. We have omitted this sentence both because the passage is long enough as is and because it raises no additional structural issues. ] Ask any ten people why this paragraph is hard to read, and nine are sure to mention the technical vocabulary; several will also suggest that it requires specialized background knowledge. Those problems turn out to be only a small part of the difficulty. Here is the passage again, with the difficult words temporarily lifted: The smallest of the URF’s, and [A], has been identified as a [B] subunit 8 gene. The functional significance of the other URF’s has been, on the contrary, elusive. Recently, however, [C] experiments, as well as [D] studies, have indicated that six human URF’s [1-6] encode subunits of Complex I. This is a large complex that also contains many subunits synthesized in the cytoplasm. It may now be easier to survive the journey through the prose, but the passage is still difficult. Any number of questions present themselves: What has the first sentence of the passage to do with the last sentence? Does the third sentence contradict what we have been told in the second sentence? Is the functional significance of URF’s still elusive? Will this passage lead us to further discussion about URF’s, or about Complex I, or both? Information is interpreted more easily and more  uniformly if it is placed where most readers expect to find it. Knowing a little about the subject matter does not clear up all the confusion. The intended audience of this passage would probably possess at least two items of essential technical information: first, URF stands for Uninterrupted Reading Frame, which describes a segment of DNA organized in such a way that it could encode a protein, although no such protein product has yet been identified; second, both APTase and NADH oxido-reductase are enzyme complexes central to energy metabolism. Although this information may provide some sense of comfort, it does little to answer the interpretive questions that need answering. It seems the reader is hindered by more than just the scientific jargon. To get at the problem, we need to articulate something about how readers go about reading. We proceed to the first of several reader expectations. Subject-Verb Separation Look again at the first sentence of the passage cited above. It is relatively long, 42 words; but that turns out not to be the main cause of its burdensome complexity. Long sentences need not be difficult to read; they are only difficult to write. We have seen sentences of over 100 words that flow easily and persuasively toward their clearly demarcated destination. Those well-wrought serpents all had something in common: Their structure presented information to readers in the order the readers needed and expected it. Beginning with the exciting material and ending with a lack of luster often leaves us disappointed and destroys our sense of momentum. The first sentence of our example passage does just the opposite: it burdens and obstructs the reader, because of an all-too-common structural defect. Note that the grammatical subject (the smallest) is separated from its verb (has been identified) by 23 words, more than half the sentence. Readers expect a grammatical subject to be followed immediately by the verb. Anything of length that intervenes between subject and verb is read as an interruption, and therefore as something of lesser importance. The reader’s expectation stems from a pressing need for syntactic resolution, fulfilled only by the arrival of the verb. Without the verb, we do not know what the subject is doing, or what the sentence is all about. As a result, the reader focuses attention on the arrival of the verb and resists recognizing anything in the interrupting material as being of primary importance. The longer the interruption lasts, the more likely it becomes that the interruptive material actually contains important information; but its structural location will continue to brand it as merely interruptive. Unfortunately, the reader will not discover its true value until too late-until the sentence has ended without having produced anything of much value outside of that subject-verb interruption. In this first sentence of the paragraph, the relative importance of the intervening material is difficult to evaluate. The material might conceivably be quite significant, in which case the writer should have positioned it to reveal that importance. Here is one way to incorporate it into the sentence structure: The smallest of the URF’s is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene. On the other hand, the intervening material might be a mere aside that diverts attention from more important ideas; in that case the writer should have deleted it, allowing the prose to drive more directly toward its significant point: The smallest of the URF’s (URFA6L) has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene. Only the author could tell us which of these revisions more accurately reflects his intentions. These revisions lead us to a second set of reader expectations. Each unit of discourse, no matter what the size, is expected to serve a single function, to make a single point. In the case of a sentence, the point is expected to appear in a specific place reserved for emphasis. The Stress Position It is a linguistic commonplace that readers naturally emphasize the material that arrives at the end of a sentence. We refer to that location as a stress position. If a writer is consciously aware of this tendency, she can arrange for the emphatic information to appear at the moment the reader is naturally exerting the greatest reading emphasis. As a result, the chances greatly increase that reader and writer will perceive the same material as being worthy of primary emphasis. The very structure of the sentence thus helps persuade the reader of the relative values of the sentence’s contents. The inclination to direct more energy to that which arrives last in a sentence seems to correspond to the way we work at tasks through time. We tend to take something like a mental breath as we begin to read each new sentence, thereby summoning the tension with which we pay attention to the unfolding of the syntax. As we recognize that the sentence is drawing toward its conclusion, we begin to exhale that mental breath. The exhalation produces a sense of emphasis. Moreover, we delight in being rewarded at the end of a labor with something that makes the ongoing effort worthwhile. Beginning with the exciting material and ending with a lack of luster often leaves us disappointed and destroys our sense of momentum. We do not start with the strawberry shortcake and work our way up to the broccoli. When the writer puts the emphatic material of a sentence in any place other than the stress position, one of two things can happen; both are bad. First, the reader might find the stress position occupied by material that clearly is not worthy of emphasis. In this case, the reader must discern, without any additional structural clue, what else in the sentence may be the most likely candidate for emphasis. There are no secondary structural indications to fall back upon. In sentences that are long, dense or sophisticated, chances soar that the reader will not interpret the prose precisely as the writer intended. The second possibility is even worse: The reader may find the stress position occupied by something that does appear capable of receiving emphasis, even though the writer did not intend to give it any stress. In that case, the reader is highly likely to emphasize this imposter material, and the writer will have lost an important opportunity to influence the reader’s interpretive process. The stress position can change in size from sentence to sentence. Sometimes it consists of a single word; sometimes it extends to several lines. The definitive factor is this: The stress position coincides with the moment of syntactic closure. A reader has reached the beginning of the stress position when she knows there is nothing left in the clause or sentence but the material presently being read. Thus a whole list, numbered and indented, can occupy the stress position of a sentence if it has been clearly announced as being all that remains of that sentence. Each member of that list, in turn, may have its own internal stress position, since each member may produce its own syntactic closure. Within a sentence, secondary stress positions can be formed by the appearance of a properly used colon or semicolon; by grammatical convention, the material preceding these punctuation marks must be able to stand by itself as a complete sentence. Thus, sentences can be extended effortlessly to dozens of words, as long as there is a medial syntactic closure for every piece of new, stress-worthy information along the way. One of our revisions of the initial sentence can serve as an example: The smallest of the URF’s is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene. By using a semicolon, we created a second stress position to accommodate a second piece of information that seemed to require emphasis. We now have three rhetorical principles based on reader expectations: First, grammatical subjects should be followed as soon as possible by their verbs; second, every unit of discourse, no matter the size, should serve a single function or make a single point; and, third, information intended to be emphasized should appear at points of syntactic closure. Using these principles, we can begin to unravel the problems of our example prose. Note the subject-verb separation in the 62-word third sentence of the original passage: Recently, however, immunoprecipitation experiments with antibodies to purified, rotenone-sensitive NADH-ubiquinone oxido-reductase [hereafter referred to as respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase or complex I] from bovine heart, as well as enzyme fractionation studies, have indicated that six human URF’s (that is, URF1, URF2, URF3, URF4, URF4L, and URF5,  hereafter referred to as ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, ND4L and ND5) encode subunits of complex I. After encountering the subject (experiments), the reader must wade through 27 words (including three hyphenated compound words, a parenthetical interruption and an as well as phrase) before alighting on the highly uninformative and disappointingly anticlimactic verb (have indicated). Without a moment to recover, the reader is handed a that clause in which the new subject (six human URF’s) is separated from its verb (encode) by yet another 20 words. If we applied the three principles we have developed to the rest of the sentences of the example, we could generate a great many revised versions of each. These revisions might differ significantly from one another in the way their structures indicate to the reader the various weights and balances to be given to the information. Had the author placed all stress-worthy material in stress positions, we as a reading community would have been far more likely to interpret these sentences uniformly. We couch this discussion in terms of likelihood  because we believe that meaning is not inherent in discourse by itself; meaning requires the combined participation of text and reader. All sentences are infinitely interpretable, given an infinite number of interpreters. As communities of readers, however, we tend to work out tacit agreements as to what kinds of meaning are most likely to be extracted from certain articulations. We cannot succeed in making even a single sentence mean one and only one thing; we can only increase the odds that a large majority of readers will tend to interpret our discourse according to our intentions. Such success will follow from authors becoming more consciously aware of the various reader expectations presented here. W e cannot succeed in making even a single sentence mean one and only one thing; we can only increase the odds that a large majority of readers will tend to interpret our discourse according to our intentions. Here is one set of revisionary decisions we made for the example: The smallest of the URF’s, URFA6L, has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene; but the functional significance of other URF’s has been more elusive. Recently, however, several human URF’s have been shown to encode subunits of rotenone-sensitive NADH-ubiquinone oxido-reductase. This is a large complex that also contains many subunits synthesized in the cytoplasm; it will be referred to hereafter as respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase or complex I. Six subunits of Complex I were shown by enzyme fractionation studies and immunoprecipitation experiments to be encoded by six human URF’s (URF1, URF2, URF3, URF4, URF4L, and URF5); these URF’s will be referred to subsequently as ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, ND4L and ND5. Sheer length was neither the problem nor the solution. The revised version is not noticeably shorter than the original; nevertheless, it is significantly easier to interpret. We have indeed deleted certain words, but not on the basis of wordiness or excess length. (See especially the last sentence of our revision. ) When is a sentence too long? The creators of readability formulas would have us believe there exists some fixed number of words (the favorite is 29) past which a sentence is too hard to read. We disagree. We have seen 10-word sentences that are virtually impenetrable  and, as we mentioned above, 100-word sentences that flow effortlessly to their points of resolution. In place of the word-limit concept, we offer the following definition: A sentence is too long when it has more viable candidates for stress positions than there are stress positions available. Without the stress position’s locational clue that its material is intended to be emphasized, readers are left too much to their own devices in deciding just what else in a sentence might be considered important. In revising the example passage, we made certain decisions about what to omit and what to emphasize. We put subjects and verbs together to lessen the reader’s syntactic burdens; we put the material we believed worthy of emphasis in stress positions; and we discarded material for which we could not discern significant connections. In doing so, we have produced a clearer passagebut not one that necessarily reflects the author’s intentions; it reflects only our interpretation of the author’s intentions. The more problematic the structure, the less likely it becomes that a grand majority of readers will perceive the discourse in exactly the way the author intended. T he information that begins a sentence establishes  for the reader a perspective for viewing the sentence as a unit. It is probable that many of our readersand perhaps even the authorswill disagree with some of our choices. If so, that disagreement underscores our point: The original failed to communicate its ideas and their connections clearly. If we happened to have interpreted the passage as you did, then we can make a different point: No one should have to work as hard as we did to unearth the content of a single passage of this length. The Topic Position To summarize the principles connected with the stress position, we have the proverbial wisdom, Save the best for last. To summarize the principles connected with the other end of the sentence, which we will call the topic position, we have its proverbial contradiction, First things first. In the stress position the reader needs and expects closure and fulfillment; in the topic position the reader needs and expects perspective and context. With so much of reading comprehension affected by what shows up in the topic position, it behooves a writer to control what appears at the beginning of sentences with great care. The information that begins a sentence  establishes for the reader a perspective for viewing the sentence as a unit: Readers expect a unit of discourse to be a story about whoever shows up first. Bees disperse pollen and Pollen is dispersed by bees are two different but equally respectable sentences about the same facts. The first tells us something about bees; the second tells us something about pollen. The passivity of the second sentence does not by itself impair its quality; in fact, Pollen is dispersed by bees is the superior sentence if it appears in a paragraph that intends to tell us a continuing story about pollen. Pollen’s story at that moment is a passive one. Readers also expect the material occupying the topic position to provide them with linkage (looking backward) and context (looking forward). The information in the topic position prepares the reader for upcoming material by connecting it backward to the previous discussion. Although linkage and context can derive from several sources, they stem primarily from material that the reader has already encountered within this particular piece of discourse. We refer to this familiar, previously introduced material as old information. Conversely, material making its first appearance in a discourse is new information. When new information is important enough to receive emphasis, it functions best in the stress position. When old information consistently arrives in the topic position, it helps readers to construct the logical flow of the argument: It focuses attention on one particular strand of the discussion, both harkening backward and leaning forward. In contrast, if the topic position is constantly occupied by material that fails to establish linkage and context, readers will have difficulty perceiving both the connection to the previous sentence and the projected role of the new sentence in the development of the paragraph as a whole. Here is a second example of scientific prose that we shall attempt to improve in subsequent discussion: Large earthquakes along a given fault segment do not occur at random intervals because it takes time to accumulate the strain energy for the rupture. The rates at which tectonic plates move and accumulate strain at their boundaries are approximately uniform. Therefore, in first approximation, one may expect that large ruptures of the same fault segment will occur at approximately constant time intervals. If subsequent main shocks have different amounts of slip across the fault, then the recurrence time may vary, and the basic idea of periodic mainshocks must be modified. For great plate boundary ruptures the length and slip often vary by a factor of 2. Along the southern segment of the San Andreas fault the recurrence interval is 145 years with variations of several decades. The smaller the standard deviation of the average recurrence interval, the more specific could be the long term prediction of a future mainshock. This is the kind of passage that in subtle ways can make readers feel badly about themselves. The individual sentences give the impression of being intelligently fashioned: They are not especially long or convoluted; their vocabulary is appropriately professional but not beyond the ken of educated general readers; and they are free of grammatical and dictional errors. On first reading, however, many of us arrive at the paragraph’s end without a clear sense of where we have been or where we are going. When that happens, we tend to berate ourselves for not having paid close enough attention. In reality, the fault lies not with us, but with the author. We can distill the problem by looking closely at the information in each sentence’s topic position: Large earthquakes The rates Therefore one subsequent mainshocks great plate boundary ruptures the southern segment of the San Andreas fault the smaller the standard deviation Much of this information is making its first appearance in this paragraphin precisely the spot where the reader looks for old, familiar information. As a result, the focus of the story constantly shifts. Given just the material in the topic positions, no two readers would be likely to construct exactly the same story for the paragraph as a whole. If we try to piece together the relationship of each sentence to its neighbors, we notice that certain bits of old information keep reappearing. We hear a good deal about the recurrence time between earthquakes: The first sentence introduces the concept of nonrandom intervals between earthquakes; the second sentence tells us that recurrence rates due to the movement of tectonic plates are more or less uniform; the third sentence adds that the recurrence rates of major earthquakes should also be somewhat predictable; the fourth sentence adds that recurrence rates vary with some conditions; the fifth sentence adds information about one particular variation; the sixth sentence adds a recurrence-rate example from California; and the last sentence tells us  something about how recurrence rates can be described statistically. This refrain of recurrence intervals constitutes the major string of old information in the paragraph. Unfortunately, it rarely appears at the beginning of sentences, where it would help us maintain our focus on its continuing story. In reading, as in most experiences, we appreciate the opportunity to become familiar with a new environment before having to function in it. Writing that continually begins sentences with new information and ends with old information forbids both the sense of comfort and orientation at the start and the sense of fulfilling arrival at the end. It misleads the reader as to whose story is being told; it burdens the reader with new information that must be carried further into the sentence before it can be connected to the discussion; and it creates ambiguity as to which material the writer intended the reader to emphasize. All of these distractions require that readers expend a disproportionate amount of energy to unravel the structure of the prose, leaving less energy available for perceiving content. We can begin to revise the example by ensuring the following for each sentence: 1. The backward-linking old information appears in the topic position. 2. The person, thing or concept whose story it is appears in the topic position. 3. The new, emphasis-worthy information appears in the stress position. Once again, if our decisions concerning the relative values of specific information differ from yours, we can all blame the author, who failed to make his intentions apparent. Here first is a list of what we perceived to be the new, emphatic material in each sentence: time to accumulate strain energy along a fault approximately uniform large ruptures of the same fault different amounts of slip vary by a factor of 2 variations of several decades predictions of future mainshock Now, based on these assumptions about what deserves stress, here is our proposed revision: Large earthquakes along a given fault segment do not occur at random intervals because it takes time to accumulate the strain energy for the rupture. The rates at which tectonic plates move and accumulate strain at their boundaries are roughly uniform. Therefore, nearly constant time intervals (at first approximation) would be expected between large ruptures of the same fault segment. [However? ], the recurrence time may vary; the basic idea of periodic mainshocks may need to be modified if subsequent mainshocks have different amounts of slip across the fault. [Indeed? ], the length and slip of great plate boundary ruptures often vary by a factor of 2. [For example? ], the recurrence intervals along the southern segment of the San Andreas fault is 145 years with variations of several decades. The smaller the standard deviation of the average recurrence interval, the more specific could be the long term prediction of a future mainshock. Many problems that had existed in the original have now surfaced for the first time. Is the reason earthquakes do not occur at random intervals stated in the first sentence or in the second? Are the suggested choices of however, indeed, and for example the right ones to express the connections at those points? (All these connections were left unarticulated in the original paragraph. ) If for example is an inaccurate transitional phrase, then exactly how does the San Andreas fault example connect to ruptures that vary by a factor of 2? Is the author arguing that recurrence rates must vary because fault movements often vary? Or is the author preparing us for a discussion of how in spite of such variance we might still be able to predict earthquakes? This last question remains unanswered because the final sentence.